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Considerations on the nature and origin of wood‑fuel from gallo‑roman cremations in the Languedoc region (Southern France)

Réflexions sur la nature et l’origine des bois utilisés dans la crémation gallo-romaine, en Languedoc (Sud de la France)
Isabel Figueiral, Laurent Fabre and Valérie Bel
p. 325-331

Abstracts

A surprising variety of woods has been identified while studying wood-fuel from gallo‑roman cremations, in the Languedoc region. A minimum of 34 species, both shrubby and arboreal, is recorded. The recycling of pruning remains is particularly noticed. No significant differences between rural and urban cremation burials are observed. The diversified taxonomic spectrum suggests that, in general, no particular selection was carried out. As a result data thus obtained may also provide information on local vegetation, local ecology and plant biogeography. It is possible however, that in certain occasions, particular species might have been selected for symbolic reasons. Results obtained point to the existence of a coherent supply system, without a standard procedure and without precise and / or restrictive rules.

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We thank S. Ivorra (UMR 5059) for her help. This work is supported by the ACR-INRAP « Organisations, espaces et peuplements en Lodévois et Vallée de l’Hérault (34) durant l’Antiquité et le Moyen Âge » and the PCR « Espace rural et occupation du sol de la région nîmoise ».

1 - Introduction

1At the height of the Roman Empire, cremation was the predominant burial practice in southern Gaul. This practice, which appeared during the Neolithic, spreads from the Late Bronze Age on, becoming exclusive, in the Languedoc region, during the Iron Age (Dedet, 2004). By the end of the 1st century and during the 2nd century A.D., cremation coexists with inhumation, until its disappearance during the beginning of the 3rd century A.D.

2The roman burial ensembles comprise pyres in pits (or graves) and different secondary structures yielding deposits of charred residues. This situation is in some ways analogous to former periods, but with the important exception that the number of uncovered pyres is much greater and the amount of charred plant material preserved much more significant.

3Surprisingly, very few studies have been carried out so far concerning the use of wood, as fuel (lignum) and as building material (materia), and its management for the pyres. The reasons why little work has been done on this subject are simple. On one hand, wood identification can be labour‑intensive and therefore expensive; on the other hand it has been often assumed that the collection of funerary wood fuel followed repetitive patterns and was therefore of limited interest. Investigations focussed instead on funerary offerings and ritual (Marinval, 1993; 2004; Bouby & Marinval, 2004; Pradat, 1994; Preiss et al., 2005, among others).

4However, the first charcoal analyses effectuated (Heinz, 2002; Fabre et al, 2003) clearly showed that the reality was quite different. This is why it is relevant to approach this subject in a critical way, trying to record as much data as possible and to organise information and ideas. Several questions arise: (1) was wood subject to a specific selection? (2) how was the supply organised? (3) where was fuel wood collected? (4) are there any differences between rural and urban burial sites? Furthermore, the roman funeral followed strict rules, as described by several authors (Scheid, 1984, 2005, among others). However, no information has ever been provided about how the pyre was assembled or in what way the physical characteristics of different wood species influenced the structure and functioning of the pyre.

5Our study will try to answer these questions and to provide a new insight into the way in which people dealt with death. Hopefully, this will help us gain a more complete picture of the gallo-roman society.

2 - Sites studied

6Recent archaeological excavations effectuated by INRAP (Institut National de Recherches Archéologiques Préventives) in the Hérault valley and in the Vistre plain (Languedoc, southern France) (fig. 1), prior to new urban developments and motorway construction, allowed us to study and compare several burial ensembles (Bel, 2007; Bel et al., 2005) located in rural ( Aspiran-Soumaltre, Nîmes-Mas des Abeilles 2 et Mas de Vignoles 9) and urban contexts (Clermont‑L’Hérault‑Peyre Plantade, Nîmes-78 av. Jean Jaurès). Work carried out is part of two large research projects under de direction of J.-Y. Breuil (PCR « Espace rural et occupation du sol de la région nîmoise ») and H. Pomarèdes [ACR « Organisations, espaces et peuplements en Lodévois (vallée de l’Hérault, 34) durant l’Antiquité et le Moyen Âge »].

Fig. 1: Location of sites studied.

Fig. 1: Location of sites studied.

(1) Nîmes Jean Jaurès, Mas des Abeilles, Mas de Vignoles 9; (2) Peyre Plantade; (3) Soumaltre.

7The burial ensemble discovered at Soumaltre comprises 30 tombs located close to an inn-farm, in the way linking Lodève to Saint-Thibéry and to the Via Domitia (Bel et al., 2004). Mas de Vignoles 9 and Mas des Abeilles also include small groups of tombs beside roads in the hinterland of Nîmes. A single pyre has been uncovered at Peyre Plantade, while 43 tombs form the enclosed group of 78, av. Jean Jaurès, located in the south-est exit of Nîmes.

8Associated artefacts include pottery and glass vases (to serve food and drinks), perfume recipients, lamps, and (to a lesser extent) personal items of the deceased, as shoe nails and toiletries. These deposits are usually quite modest, with the exception of the pyre from Peyre Plantade which contained remains of a bed (frame elements of three iron legs in association with decorated bone elements)

9The chronology of the structures studied is as follows:

  • 1st century A.D.: Soulmaltre and Peyre-Plantade

  • end 1st / 2nd centuries A.D. : 78, Jean Jaurès, Mas de Vignoles 9 and Mas des Abeilles 2.

10The study of some of these sites is still under way and as a result, data presented here are still preliminary. We hope however that they might help recognize new avenues of research.

3- Material and methods

11Charcoal fragments studied in the 5 sites were found concentrated in the different graves and recovered by wet sieving (mesh 4 and 2 mm):

12urban contexts:

13Jean Jaurès (I – II AD: Graves 1320-1, 1320-2, 1351, 1004, 1055, 1295, 1296.

14Peyre Plantade (I AD): Grave 3060.

15rural contexts:

16Soumaltre (I – II AD): Graves 11172, 11190, 11104, 11090, 11164, 11167, 11034, 11040, 11194.

17Mas des Abeilles (I – II AD): Graves 1598, 1304. Mas de Vignolles 9 (II AD): Graves 2247, 2249.

18In the laboratory, wood anatomical characters (preserved by charring) were observed under a compound microscope, equipped with reflected light. Identifications are achieved via the comparison of the archaeological material with modern reference material and the descriptions provided by specialized literature (Greguss, 1955, 1957; Grosser, 1977; Schweingruber, 1990).

4- Results and comments

19The evidence acquired so far (tab. 1 et 2) testifies to the use of a wide range of woody plants, with a minimum of 34 species for 6680 charcoal fragments analysed.

20The taxonomic spectrum identified includes plants characterizing diverse biotopes (1) Mediterranean mixed oak forest, (2) riparian woodland, (3) cultivated fields, (4) wasteland vegetation (5) highland forest, thus suggesting that different areas were exploited as sources of fuel wood for burial practices.

21Comparison of information obtained appears to point to the absence of significant differences between rural (29 taxa for 4131 fragments) and urban (22 taxa for 2549 fragments) cremation burials.

22The use of both shrubby and arboreal species is recorded. Small calibre wood is easily obtained from the first, while the second provides both small and large calibre material.

23Oaks (both deciduous and evergreen) are very ubiquitous and abundant elements, but they are not always predominant as might have been expected. These key species of the local Mediterranean vegetation were easily available in the areas exploited for firewood. Unexpected species can dominate in certain structures. Grave 1798, from Mas des Abeilles, is a good example of this: Rosaceae cf. Crataegus is the predominant fuel wood used (48.5 %). At Jean Jaurès, Buxus is the main component of pyre 1004 (51.5 %), while at Vignolles 9, Vitis dominates in US 2247 (61 %).

24Other unlikely species were also abundantly used, such as Erica (9,6 % in Ustrinum 11104, 12,3 % in grave 11164 from Soumaltre (Fabre, 2004), and 42,2 % in grave 1055 from Jean Jaurès), Vitis (20.1 % in grave 1798 from Mas des Abeilles) and Olea (42 % in grave 1055 from Jean Jaurès).

25The taxonomic diversity observed suggests that, generally, no particular selection was carried out. Any wood coming to hand would be used in the cremation pyres. Availability and vicinity appear to have been the most important factors.

26It is possible however, that in certain occasions, particular species might have been selected for symbolic reasons. This is for instance the case of Cistus ladanifer (Jean Jaurès), Cupressus (Soumaltre) and Pinus pinea (Jean Jaurès). We recall that Cistus ladanifer is an aromatic and sticky shrub with specific habitat requirements and restricted to very few localities in the region (none of which in the vicinity of Nîmes). The leaves of this plant yield a fragrant resin, known as labdanum, used as an herbal medicine and in perfumes since Antiquity. Its use has been described by Greek and Roman authors, such as Herodotus, Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder (Deforce, 2006).

27Cupressus (fig. 2) is an introduced ornamental tree, usually associated with graveyards and considered by many as “the” mortuary symbol, connected with death and the underworld. According to Connors (1992), Virgil clearly mentions the presence of this tree in funerary contexts, while Pliny the Elder notices that a branch of cypress was hung up in houses as a sign that someone had died. In the case of Soumaltre, this is the earliest identification of Cupressus in the Languedoc region, both as charcoal (Fabre, 2004) and seeds (Zwierzinski & Ruas, 2004). Pinus pinea is also a symbolic / magical plant, which assured the link between the living and the dead, associated with Cybele (tree) and Dionysos/ Bacchus (female cones) (Bilimoff 2003, 2006; Ducourthial, 2002).

28Attention must also be drawn to the problem of distinguishing wood fuel from funerary artefacts, such as beds, boxes, statuettes, which may have been made out of very particular species. The presence of mountain species such as Fagus, Picea / Larix could eventually be explained, even if the abundance of Fagus in some burials points to its use as fuel (60.4 %, pyre 1295, Jean Jaurès); In this case the supply of specific fuel wood may have answered a particular demand (from an upper class individual, for example).

29The taxonomic variety and the range of diameters used may reflect the existence of a flexible and opportunistic organisation of the supply, using all the available resources from different environments, even recycling pruning remains, such as those of Vitis (fig. 3), Juglans and Olea. As a result, the potential of this material for providing information on the composition of local vegetal environments must be taken into account. On the whole, the results obtained in the different ensembles are very similar to those resulting from the study of domestic charcoal from settlements (for references see Chabal 1997; Fabre 2004), identifying the same plant species and vegetation communities. These studies show that, during this period, wood collection was mainly carried out in areas dominated by Quercus ilex in association with colonizing species such as Buxus and Erica, which spread in detriment of deciduous oaks. The evergreen oak woodland, identified in the Languedoc since the gallo-roman period is a well prized biotope, exploited as a reliable source of firewood, as shown by the different charcoal analysis studies from the Hérault Valley and the area around Nîmes (Chabal, 1997; Fabre, 2004, 2005). More mesophilous habitats were also exploited.

30The abundant use of species providing branches and twigs of small calibre (ex: Erica, Buxus) and even mono-cotyledonous may also answer specific requirements of the combustion process, multiplying the number of ignition points when starting the cremation fire. We recall that, the speed and effectiveness of the cremation depends on the structure of the pyre, the amount of fire-wood used, the position of the body and the weather (for references see Dutour et al., 1989 and Blaizot, 2005). As observed when the pyre remains are not rearranged (or relocated), the majority of bone remains lay above the layer of charcoal clearly showing that the body was laid on top of the wood, for maximum exploitation of the ascendant thermal flow. Body cremation involves the use of high temperatures aiming at dehydrating the body, burning the fat and ultimately obtaining white mineralised bones. The temperature required can be obtained by using any type of wood (dense or light) provided that it is healthy and reasonably dry (20 % humidity). We recall that the temperature reached during combustion depends more on the mass and shape of the fuel wood than on the actual botanical species used (Chabal et al., 1999 ; Théry-Parisot, 2001).

Tab. 1: Presence / absence of taxa in urban contexts (dominant taxon in black).

Tab. 1: Presence / absence of taxa in urban contexts (dominant taxon in black).

Tab. 2: Presence / absence of taxa in rural contexts (dominant taxon in black).

Tab. 2: Presence / absence of taxa in rural contexts (dominant taxon in black).

Fig. 2: The first record of Cupressus in the Languedoc comes from Soumaltre (transverse section on the left, tangential section on the right).

Fig. 2: The first record of Cupressus in the Languedoc comes from Soumaltre (transverse section on the left, tangential section on the right).

31

Fig. 3: Vitis vinifera appears to have been frequently used as fuel wood (Mas de Vignoles 9).

Fig. 3: Vitis vinifera appears to have been frequently used as fuel wood (Mas de Vignoles 9).

5- Conclusion

32Data obtained so far suggest the existence of a coherent supply system, without a standard procedure and without precise and / or restrictive rules. All available woods were collected and used. Sporadic selection of preferred woods (symbolic meaning) must be taken into account.

33Ultimately, the interpretation of charcoal data from funerary contexts may go beyond their immediate significance. Comparative studies may also provide important information on local vegetation, local ecology and plant biogeography.

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List of illustrations

Title Fig. 1: Location of sites studied.
Caption (1) Nîmes Jean Jaurès, Mas des Abeilles, Mas de Vignoles 9; (2) Peyre Plantade; (3) Soumaltre.
URL http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/docannexe/image/5670/img-1.png
File image/png, 65k
Title Tab. 1: Presence / absence of taxa in urban contexts (dominant taxon in black).
URL http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/docannexe/image/5670/img-2.png
File image/png, 56k
Title Tab. 2: Presence / absence of taxa in rural contexts (dominant taxon in black).
URL http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/docannexe/image/5670/img-3.png
File image/png, 75k
Title Fig. 2: The first record of Cupressus in the Languedoc comes from Soumaltre (transverse section on the left, tangential section on the right).
URL http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/docannexe/image/5670/img-4.png
File image/png, 158k
Title Fig. 3: Vitis vinifera appears to have been frequently used as fuel wood (Mas de Vignoles 9).
URL http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/docannexe/image/5670/img-5.png
File image/png, 404k
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References

Bibliographical reference

Isabel Figueiral, Laurent Fabre and Valérie Bel, Considerations on the nature and origin of wood‑fuel from gallo‑roman cremations in the Languedoc region (Southern France)Quaternaire, vol. 21/3 | 2010, 325-331.

Electronic reference

Isabel Figueiral, Laurent Fabre and Valérie Bel, Considerations on the nature and origin of wood‑fuel from gallo‑roman cremations in the Languedoc region (Southern France)Quaternaire [Online], vol. 21/3 | 2010, Online since 01 December 2013, connection on 29 March 2024. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/quaternaire/5670; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/quaternaire.5670

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About the authors

Isabel Figueiral

Inrap Méditerranée, 561, rue Etienne Lenoir, km delta, 30900 Nîmes. Courriel: isabel.figueiral-rowe@inrap.fr;Centre de Bio-Archéologie et Ecologie, UMR 3059 (USTL, CNRS, EPHE), Institut de Botanique, 163 rue A. Broussonet, 34090 Montpellier.

By this author

Laurent Fabre

Inrap Méditerranée, 561, rue Etienne Lenoir, km delta, 30900 Nîmes. Centre de Bio-Archéologie et Ecologie, UMR 3059 (USTL, CNRS, EPHE), Institut de Botanique, 163 rue A. Broussonet, 34090 Montpellier.

Valérie Bel

Inrap Méditerranée, 561, rue Etienne Lenoir, km delta, 30900 Nîmes;UMR 5140, Archéologie des Sociétés Méditerranéennes, Route de Pérols, 34970 Lattes.

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